理论知识是指概括性强、抽象度高的知识体系。理论知识不是分散的、零星的知识，不是个别性的、具体性的知识，而是系统的、有普通意义的知识。理论知识中往往包含了一般知识和专业知识， 以下是为大家整理的关于入党谈话理论知识3篇 , 供大家参考选择。
入党谈话理论知识3篇
第一篇: 入党谈话理论知识
头发理论知识
一、毛发生理学；
1头发分为三大层，表皮层，皮质层，髓质层。
2头发又四大键构成，氢键，盐键，二硫化物键，氨基键。
二、直径分区
1粗硬的头发直径为九十微米以上。
健康发质；A抗拒性发质；发质粗硬。
B正常发质；发质粗细适中
注；是没有经过任何化学处理的发质，毛鳞片没有受损，具有保护的作用。
2中性的头发直径为60-90微米以上
是指头发表皮层轻度受损，而内层是健康的发质。
3细软的头发直径为60微米以上，
受损发质；A一般受损发质是指；做过一两次烫、染的发质，
第二篇: 入党谈话理论知识
《翻译理论与实践》考试理论部分复习提纲
一、翻译定义：
1. 张培基——翻译是用一种语言把另一种语言所表达的思维内容准确而完整地重新表达出来的语言活动。？
3. 刘宓庆——翻译的实质是语际的意义转换。？
4. 王克非——翻译是将一种语言文字所蕴含的意思用另一种语言文字表达出来的文化活动。
5. 泰特勒——好的翻译应该是把原作的长处完全地移注到另一种语言，以使译入语所属国家的本地人能明白地领悟、强烈地感受，如同使用原作语言的人所领悟、所感受的一样。？
6. 费道罗夫——翻译就是用一种语言把另一种语言在内容与形式不可分割的统一中所有已表达出来的东西准确而完全地表达出来。？
7. 卡特福德——翻译的定义也可以这样说：把一种语言（Source Language）中的篇章材料用另一种语言（Target Language）中的篇章材料来加以代替。
8. 奈达——翻译就是在译入语中再现与原语信息最切近的自然对等物，首先就意义而言，其次就是文体而言。
“Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” ---Eugene Nida
纽马克——通常（虽然不能说总是如此），翻译就是把一个文本的意义按作者所想的方式移译入另一种文字（语言）。“Translation is a craft consisting in the attempt to replace a written message and/or statement in one language by the same message and/or statement in another language.” --- Peter Newmark
10. “Translation is the expression in one language (or target language译入语) of what has been expressed in another language (source language 原语), preserving semantic and stylistic equivalences.” --- Dubois
12. 13.Translation or translating is a communicative activity or dynamic process in which the translator makes great effort to thoroughly comprehend a written message or text in the source language and works very hard to achieve an adequate or an almost identical reproduction in the target language version of the written source language message or text.
二、翻译标准
1. 翻译的标准概括为言简意赅的四个字：“忠实（faithfulness）、通顺（smoothness）”。忠实指的是忠实于原文。通顺指的是译文的语言必须合乎规范、通俗易懂。？
2. 严复对翻译曾经提出“信（faithfulness）、达（expressiveness）、雅（elegance）”的标准：“译事三难：信、达、雅。求其信已大难矣，顾信矣不达，虽译犹不译也，则达尚焉。”
3. “泰特勒三原则”：（1）That the Translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work；（2）That the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original；（3）That the Translation should have all the ease of original composition.”（1）译作应完全复写出原作的思想；（2）译作的风格和手法应和原作属于同一性质；（3）译作应具备原作所具有的通顺。”？？（谭载喜，2006）泰特勒指出，这三项原则是好的翻译所必备的条件，它们次序的排列是恰当的、自然的，是按重要顺序排列的，如果在不得已的情况下要牺牲某一个原则就要注意到它们的次第和比较上的重要性，决不能颠倒主次，以牺牲思想内容的忠实来求得译文的优美和流畅。
5. 奈达提出了著名的“动态对等”。他对翻译所下的定义: 所谓翻译, 是在译语中用最切近而又最自然的对等语再现源语的信息, 首先是意义, 其次是文体。Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style. (Nida & Taber,1969:12).
这一定义明确指出翻译的本质和任务是用译语再现源语信息, 翻译的方法用最切近而又最自然的对等语。？
6. 纽马克“文本中心”论：纽马克把要翻译的对象看成文本，并根据语言的功能把文本分为表达型、信息型和召唤型三大类。表达型包括严肃的文学作品、声明和信件等；信息型包括书籍、报告、论文、备忘录等；召唤型包括各种宣传品、说明书和通俗小说等。他认为不同的文本应该用不同的翻译方法（纽马克把翻译方法分为语义翻译和交际翻译两种。前者强调忠实于原作“原作者”；后者强调忠实于译作“读者”）,不同的评价标准，不同的“等效”要求。？
8. 其他翻译标准？
刘重德： 信达切
许渊冲：信达优；美化之艺术，创优似竞赛；（三美论：意美、音美、形美；等化、深化、浅化；知之、好之、乐之；发挥译入语优势）
傅雷：重神似不重形似
钱钟书：化境
鲁迅：凡是翻译，必须兼顾两面：一则当然力求其易解，一则保存着原作的丰姿。
林语堂：音美、意美、神美、气美、形美
郭沫若：好的翻译等于创作
三、翻译过程
理解和表达是翻译的两个主要步骤。译者对原文的正确理解在翻译过程中至关重要；译者的表达须具有准确力和表现力，语言须具有生动性和形式美。
分析原文就是细致处理词位的所指意义和联想意义、研究句法和语篇结构。理解和领会原文是从事无论何种翻译的基本功力。如果译者确实理解了原文的涵义，又能得心应手地驾驭译语，那么翻译就是一个很自然的驾轻就熟的过程。
翻译的过程可以简单分为：理解—表达---校核三个阶段，或理解---表达两个阶段。
四、翻译分类：？
2. 从涉及到的符号来看，翻译可分为语内翻译（intralingual translation）（通过同一语言中的一些语言符号解释另一些符号，如把古汉语译成现代汉语），语际翻译（interlingual translation）（通过一种语言符号解释另一种语言符号，如把英语译成汉语），符际翻译（intersemiotic translation）（通过非语言的符号系统解释语言符号或用语言符号解释非语言符号，如用手势语解释一则新闻。）
3. 从翻译的手段来看，翻译可分为口译、笔译和机器翻译。
4.从翻译的题材来看明，翻译可分为专业性翻译（翻译法律、科技文献、专业学术论著等）、文学翻译（翻译小说、诗歌、戏剧等文学作品）和一般性翻译（翻译各种应用文和新闻报道等）。
5. 从翻译方式上来看，翻译可分为全译、摘译和编译。
泰特勒（Tytler,1748-1814）的翻译理论和思想主要见于《论翻译的原则》一书。该书是西方翻译理论的第一部专著，在书中，泰特勒提出了著名的翻译三原则：1、译文应完整地再现原文的思想内容(That the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work.)； 2、译文的风格、笔调应与原文的性质相同(That the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original.)；3、译文影响原文一样流畅(That the translation should have all the ease of the original composition.)。
八、常用翻译方法、策略与技巧
1. 直译与意译（Literal translation and Free translation）
英语与汉语的语言结构与文体结构有相同的一面，汉译时可照译，即所谓“直译”——既忠实原文内容，又符合原文的语言与文体结构。由于人们在感情，在对客观事物的感受及社会经历等方面会有相似之处，英汉语言表达中有少量相同或近似的表达方式，这些表达方式的字面意义，形象意义相同或近似，隐含意义相同，也就是说，这些表达方式的字面意义和形象意义所传达出的文化信息是相同的，可以互译。？
“意译”则从意义出发，只要求将原文大意表达出来，不需过分注重细节，但要求译文自然流畅。由于文化因素的影响，在翻译时无法保留原语的字面意义和形象意义，可将原文的形象更换成另一个译文读者所熟悉的形象，从而转达出原文的语用目的，译出隐含意义。英汉两种语言不同的发展历史，民族文化，风俗习惯造成了两个民族独特的语言与独特的表达方式。因此，翻译时必须对两种语言文化基础有基本的认识，不能逐字翻译。凡语言都有习惯表达，言外之意。在深入领会原作的精神实质的前提之下，不拘泥于原作的字面形式，创造性的表达原作思想，但不可添枝加叶，改变原作的风格。
注：在翻译界通用的方法是将“直译”与“意译”相互结合。任何一篇好的翻译作品，并不是单纯的某一种翻译方法贯穿始终，而是在保持原文内容的准确性，不引起歧义的情况下，将这两种翻译方法在同一翻译作品中并用，相得益彰。笔者对翻译界的这种做法完全认同。笔者认为，两种翻译方法在任何一篇翻译作品中都能并用的话，一定可以译出一部优秀的翻译作品。
2. 归化和异化（domestication and foreignization）？
异化和归化是在1995年由美国翻译理论家劳伦斯·韦努蒂（Lawrence Venuti）在《译者的隐形》（The Translator’s Invisibility）一书中提出来的。从历史上看，异化和归化可以视为直译和意译的概念延伸，但又不完全等同于直译和意译。直译和意译所关注的核心问题是如何在语言层面处理形式和意义，而异化和归化则突破了语言因素的局限，将视野扩展到语言、文化和美学等因素。按韦努蒂（Venuti）的说法，归化法是“把原作者带入译入语文化”，而异化法则是“接受外语文本的语言及文化差异，把读者带入外国情景”。（Venuti，1995:20）由此可见，直译和意译主要是局限于语言层面的价值取向，异化和归化则是立足于文化大语境下的价值取向，两者之间的差异是显而易见的，不能混为一谈。
归化（domestication）是指在翻译中采用透明、流畅的风格，最大限度地淡化原文的陌生感的翻译策略（Shuttleworth&Cowie，1997:43-44）。它应尽可能的使源语文本所反映的世界接近目的语文化读者的世界，从而达到源语文化与目的语文化之间的“文化对等”。
异化（foreignization）是指偏离本土主流价值观，保留原文的语言和文化差异（Venuti，2001:240）；或指在一定程度上保留原文的异域性，故意打破目标语言常规的翻译（Shuttleworth&Cowie，1997:59）。它主张在译文中保留源语文化，丰富目的语文化和目的语的语言表达方式。
用通俗的语言概括，即归化法要求译者向译语读者靠拢，采取译语读者习惯的译语表达方式，来传达原文的内容；异化法则要求译者向作者靠拢，采取相应于作者使用的原语表达方式，来传达原文的内容。
注：异化时不妨碍译文的通顺易懂，归化时不失去原文的味道，同时，我们应坚持对语言形式采取归化的策略，而对其文化因素进行异化处理。这样，译文作品可兼两策略之长而避其短，使两者有共同发展的空间。由此，在实际翻译过程中归化与异化应该是相辅相成，并有互补的辩证统一关系。
翻译理论知识概要
第一部分：翻译术语
1. Definitions of translation
Translation can be roughly defined as a reproduction or recreation in one language of what is written or said in another language. Being a very complicated human activity, its whole picture is never easy to describe. Scholars with different academic backgrounds have attempted to define it from various perspectives.
(1). Linguistic Views on Translation
Translation theorists from the linguistic school conceive of translation as a linguistic activity and some believe that translation theory is a branch of linguistics, approaching the issues of translating primarily from the viewpoint of the linguistic differences between source and target texts.
Translation may be defined as the replacement of textual material in one language (the source language) by equivalent textual material in another language (the target language). (Catford, 1965: 20).
Translation theory derives from comparative linguistics, and within linguistics, it is mainly an aspect of semantics; all questions of semantics relate to translation theory. (Newmark, 1982 /1988:5).
(2). Cultural Views on Translation
In the cultural approach, translation is regarded not only as a transfer of linguistic signs, but also as a communication of cultures, i.e. translation is an "intercultural communication"; hence the terms of "intercultural cooperation", "acculturation", and "transculturation".
翻译不仅涉及语言问题,也涉及文化问题。译者不仅要了解外国的文化, 还要深入了解自己民族的文化。不仅如此, 还要不断地把两种文化加以比较, 因为真正的对等应该是在各自文化中的含义、作用、范围、感情色彩、影响等等都是相当的。翻译者必须是一个真正意义的文化人。人们会说：他必须掌握两种语言; 确实如此, 但是不了解语言当中的社会文化, 谁也无法真正掌握语言(王佐良,1989)。
(4). Semantic Views on Translation
This view focuses on the semantic equivalence between the two languages,as well expressed by Eugene Nida(1986):"Translating means translating meaning".
Translation is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text (Newmark,1988:5).
Semantic translation: the translator attempts,within the bare syntactic and semantic constraints of the target language,to reproduce the precise contextual meaning of the author (Newmark,1982:22).
In semantic translation, greater attention is paid to rendering the author"s original thought-processes in target language than to attempting to re-interpret source text in a way which the translator considers more appropriate for the target setting (Shuttleworth & Cowie,1997:151).
(5).Functional Views on Translation
Functionalists believe that translation is a specific form of human action with a certain purpose, a kind of linguistic service provided to the society.Translators should take into account the needs of the client, the reader as well as the purpose or use of the translation:
It is not the source text, or its effects on the source-text recipient, or the function assigned to it by the author, that determines the translation process, but the prospective function or purpose of the target text as determined by the initiator"s, i.e.client"s needs (Baker,2001:236).
(6).Communicative Views on Translation
This approach views translation as a communicative process which takes place within a social context.
Communicative translation:the translator attempts to produce the same effect on the target language readers as was produced by the original on the source language readers (Newmark, 1982:22).
Communicative translation is generally oriented towards the needs of the target language reader or recipient. A translator who is translating communicatively will treat source text as a message rather than a mere string of linguistic units,and will be concerned to preserve source text"s original function and to reproduce its effect on the new audience (Shuttleworth & Cowie,1997:21).
The above views help us to understand the complex nature of translation. Since there are many factors which affect the translation process, translation is a complicated human activity.
2. Translation Criteria Put Forward by Famous Translators or Translation Theorists
Some well-known translators or translation theorists at home and abroad have put forward criteria to judge the quality of a translation.
(1). 严复 (1853-1921):Triple Principle of Translation
信 (faithfulness): 忠实准确
达 (expressiveness}: 通顺流畅
雅 (elegance): 文字古雅
Yan Fu put forward this "Three-character Guide” in his preface to the translation of T.H. Huxley"s book Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays (《天演论》译例言 1898): 译事三难信达雅。求其信己大难矣。顾信矣不达。虽译犹不译也。则达尚焉......
易曰修辞立诚。子曰辞达而已。又曰言之无文，行之不远。三者乃文章正轨。亦即为译事楷模。故信达而外，求其尔雅。此不仅期以行远已耳。实则精理微言。用汉以前字法句法，则为达易。用近世利俗文字，则求达难。往往抑义就词，毫厘千里。审择于斯二者之间，夫固有所不得已也。岂钓奇哉。......
Translation has to do three difficult things: to be faithful, expressive, and elegant. It is difficult enough to be faithful to the original, and yet if a translation is not expressive, it is tantamount to having no translation. Hence expressiveness should be required too.……
The Book of Changes says that the first requisite of rhetoric is truthfulness. Confucius says that expressiveness is all that matters in language. He adds that if one"s language lacks grace, it won"t go far. These three qualities, then, are the criteria of good writing and, I believe, of good translation too. Hence besides faithfulness and expressiveness, I also aim at elegance. I strive for elegance not just to make my translations travel far, but to express the original writer"s ideas better, for I find that subtle thoughts are better expressed in the vocabulary and syntax of pre-Han prose than those of the vulgar writings of today. Using the latter often leads to distortion of meaning, which, however slight, results in vast misunderstanding. Weighing the pros and cons, I opted for the former, as a matter of necessity, not trying to be different ……
Yan Fu’s first two criteria of being faithful to the original text in content and being expressive in translation are generally acceptable, but his interpretation of "elegance" has aroused plenty of criticism because, in his opinion, one has to resort to the vocabulary and syntax of pre-Han prose to achieve "elegance". Yan Fu"s criteria are also controversial for his emphasis on the equal status of the three conflicing principles. Despite this, Yan’s criteria are still popular in China, but the interpretation of his criteria has changed. Nowadays to many translators, "elegance" implies "the safe and sound preservation of the taste and shade of the original”(黄龙, 1988:90) or "运用读者所最乐于接受的文体, 使译文得以广泛流传，扩大影响"(劳陇，《翻译通讯》1983年第10期).
(2). 鲁迅 信（faithfulness) 顺（smoothness) ？
(3). 林语堂 忠实{faithfulness) 通顺(smoothness) 美(beautifulness)？
翻译的标准问题，大概包括三方面。我们可依三方面的次序讨论。第一是忠实标准，第二是通顺标准，第三是美的标准。这翻译的三层标准，与严氏的"译事三难"，大体上是正相比符的。
(4). 傅雷:神似 (resemblance in spirit)？
以效果而论，(文学)翻译应当像临画一样，所求的不在形似而在神似。(《高老头》重译本序，1951)
(5). 钱钟书：化境 (reaching the acme of perfection)？
文学翻译的最高境界是"化"，把作品从一国文字转变成另一国文字，既能不因语文习惯的差异而露出生硬牵强的痕迹，又能完全保存原有的风昧，那就算得入于"化境"。十七世纪有人赞美这种造诣的翻译，比为原作的"投胎转世"(the transmigration of soul), 躯壳换了一个，而精神姿致依然故我。换句话说，译本对原作应该忠实得以至于读起来不像译本，因为作品在原文里绝不会读起来像经过翻译似的。(《林纾的翻译》，1964)
(6). 刘重德：信（faithhlness）？
达（expressiveness）
切（closeness)
信于内容 (to be faithful to the content of the original);
达如其分 (to be as expressive as the original);
切合风格 (to be as close to the original style as possible).
(《浑金璞玉集》，1994: 9)
(7). 许渊冲：三重标准 (three levels of criteria) (《翻译的艺术》，1984: 26)
(8). Alexander Fraser TytIer (泰特勒): Three Principles of Translation
Alexander F.Tytler, a famous British translation theorist, put forward the classical criteria in his Essay on the Principles of Translation (1790):
1) The translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work (译作应该完全传达原作的思想)；
2) The style and manner of writing in the translation should be of the same character with that of the original (译作的风格与笔调应当与原作保持一致)；
3) The translation should have all the ease of the original composition
(译作应当和原作一样流畅).
Tytler further points out that the above-said three principles are arranged and ranked according to the order of their significance, and that, when they are not simultaneously attainable, the first should be held to at the sacrifice of the third principle, then the second .
(9). Eugene A. Nida (奈达): Functional Equivalence (功能对等) ？
Eugene A.Nida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward his recent interpretation of functional equivalence in his Language and Culture: Context in Translating(2001:87):
1) A minimal, realistic definition of functional equivalence:The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it. (最低限度而又切合实际的功能对等定义：译文读者对译文的理解应当达到能够想像出原文读者是怎样理解和领会原文的程度).
2) A maximal, ideal definition of functional equivalence: The readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did. (最高限度合乎理想的功能对等定义：译文读者应当能够基本上按照原文读者理解和领会原文的方式来理解和领会译文).
3. Classification of translation
(1). Jakobson (1896-1982)
1) Intralingual translation or rewording is an interpretation of verbal signs by means of other signs of the same language.
2) Interlingual translation or translation proper is an interpretation of verbal signs by means of some other language.
3) Intersemiotic translation or transmutation is an interpretation of verbal signs by means of signs of nonverbal sign systems.
e.g.
1) 原文：子曰：“学而时习之，不亦乐乎!有朋友自远方来，不亦乐乎!人不知而不愠，不亦君子乎!”
译文一: 孔子说:“学习了而时常温习，不也高兴吗！有朋友从远方来，不也快乐吗!别人不了解我，我并不怨恨，不也是君子吗？” (徐志刚 译)
译文二: The Master said，"To learn and at due times to repeat what one has learnt，
Is that not after all a pleasure? That friends should come to one from afar, Is this not after all delightful? To remain unsoured even though one’s merits are unrecognized by others, Is that not after all what is expected of a gentleman? (Waley 译)
[点评] 原文同译文一之间的转换属于语内翻译 (intralingual translation), 即用同一语盲的其他语言符号对原文迸行阐释或者重述 (rewording)。原文同译文二之间的转换属于语际翻译 (interlingual translation)，即两个不同语言之间所进行的转换。
2) 原文：A: What does your watch say?
B: It says “five past three”.
[点评] 在这一对话中，B实际上是在迸行一种翻译，这种翻译叫做符际翻译(intersemiotic translation)，即语言同非语言符号之间的代码转换。当A询问B几点钟的时候，B只能看钟或者看手表，而钟或者手表并不能说话，B只能根据钟表的时针和分针来确定具体儿点钟了。而B所言实际上是言语传达一个非言语信息 (non-linguistic message)。将非言语信息用言语传达出来是翻译的一种方式，这不是从一种语言到另一种语言的转换过程，而是从非语言交际系统到语言交际系统的过程。非语言交际系统和语言交际系统的共同特征是两者都属于"符号系统"(即用于交际的系统)。雅可布逊 Jakobson)将这种由非语言交际系统到语言交际系统的转换过程称为符际翻译是恰当的。其实，我们每个人每一天、每一刻都在迸行着符际翻译而不自知也。从这个意义上说，我们每个人都是某种意义上的译者 (Hervey et.al 1995:8-9).
(2). Peter Newmark (纽马克): Communicative and Semantic Translation (交际翻译与语义翻译)？
Peter Newmark, a famous British translation theorist, put forward his concepts of communicative and semantic translation in his Approaches to Translation (1982/1988:39):
1) Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. (交际翻译力图对译作读者产生尽可能接近原作读者所获得的效果).
2) Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. (语义翻译力图在译作语言的语义结构和句法结构允许的情况下，译出原作在上下文中的准确意义).
4. Nature and Scope of Translation
What is translation? Some people believe it is a science, others take it as an art, and
yet many consider it a craft, or rather, a skill.
Of these varied opinions, which one holds true for our purpose? The answer depends on how we understand or interpret the word "translation", for the very word "translation" itself is ambiguous, and the Chinese equivalent ""fanyi" sounds even fuzzier. Fanyi, in Chinese, may either stand for a subject of the curriculum, a job people engage in, a piece of literary work, or the translating or interpreting work itself. Sometimes, "fanyi" may even refer to the translator or interpreter himself/herself.
If the word "translation" refers to a subject, namely, the study of translation theory and skills, it is no doubt a science, just as any subject is, with its own rules, laws and principles for the translators to abide by; however, if it refers to some specific pieces of translation, then it is more like an art, with each piece manifesting its own charms and style in the creative hands of the translator; whereas, if it refers to a process, in which something is translated, then we may regard it as a craft or skill. For unlike any branch of natural science, the process of translation has its peculiarity, and none of its rules and principles are universally applicable. Besides, it entails a lot of practice—particular craftsmanship and skills are displayed by the touches of different translators.
Translation covers a very broad range. In terms of languages, it can be divided into two categories: from native languages into foreign languages and vice versa; in terms of the mode, it can be divided into oral interpretation, written translation and machine translation; in terms of materials to be translated, there is translation of scientific materials, translation of literary works such as novels, stories, prose, poetry, drama, etc. , translation of political essays such as treatises on social problems, reports, speeches, etc. , and translation of practical writing (as official documents, contracts and agreements, notices , receipts, etc.); in terms of disposal, it can be either full-text translation（全文翻译）, abridged translation（摘译）or adapted translation（编译）.
5. Principles or Criteria of Translation
The so-called principles and criteria of translation are actually the two sides of the same thing. The former lays emphasis on the translator, who should follow them while translating; while the latter on the reader or critic, who may use the criteria to evaluate translation works. Whenever principles or criteria of translation are under discussion in China, Yan Fu’s "three-character guide", which was first proposed in 1898, would evoke controversy, namely, the principle of "信、达、雅"(faithfulness expressiveness and elegance ).
In the past decades Mr. Yan"s principle of translation has been generally regarded as a plumb-line for measuring the professional level of translation and a goal for translators to strive after. However, in the application of this principle, people have come to find some limitations to the three characters and put forward a variety of new standards instead.
Three kinds of opinions are expressed on the principle of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance. The first group maintains the original three characters, and in the meantime, adds some new concepts to the character "雅". According to them, "雅" means far more than the English word "elegance". Apart from the traditional interpretation, it also means classicism, the adherence to the original style and flavor. The second group, however, argues that the word "雅" is out of place in translation. While adopting the first two characters of Mr. Yan Fu"s principle, it discards the character "雅" and tries to find some other new criteria instead. Noticeably, there are revisions such as "信、达、切 " (faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness), "信、达、贴 " (faithfulness, expressiveness and fitness), and so on. The third group of people, by casting away the three-word guide, propose some new principles or criteria of translation of their own. Of the various popular theories two of them are most influential: spiritual conformity (神似) and sublimated adaptation (化境). The former, proposed by Fu Lei emphasizes the reproduction of the spirit or the flavor of the original, while the latter, advocated by Qian Zhongshu, focuses on the translator"s smooth and idiomatic Chinese version for the sake of the Chinese reader.
Despite the variety of opinions, two criteria are almost unanimously accepted, namely, the criterion of faithfulness/accuracy（忠实、准确) and that of smoothness (流畅). We may also take these two criteria as the principles of translation in general. By faithfulness/ accuracy, we mean to be faithful not only to the original contents, to the original meaning and views, but also to the original form and style. By smoothness, we mean not only easy and readable rendering, but also idiomatic expression in the target language, free from stiff formula and mechanical copying from dictionaries.
6. Literal Translation and Free Translation
The process of translation consists of two phases: comprehension and expression. Generally speaking, comprehension is of foremost importance, and expression is the natural consequence of thorough comprehension. However, in the practice of translation we may find that now and then some words in their usual senses are very difficult to deal with because of the disparity between the English and the Chinese languages. In this case, we have to resort to some special means of translation. Literal translation and free translation are two useful approaches in dealing with such awkward situations.
The so-called literal translation, superficially speaking, means "not to alter the original words and sentences"; strictly speaking, it strives "to keep the sentiments and style of the original". It takes sentences as its basic units and takes the whole text (discourse) into consideration at the same time in the course of translation. Furthermore, it strives to reproduce both the ideological content and the style of the original works and retains as much as possible the figures of speech. There are quite a lot of examples of successful literal translation that have been adopted as idiomatic Chinese expressions. For example, crocodile"s tears, armed to the teeth, chain reaction, gentlemen"s agreement, and so on. Similarly, some Chinese idioms also find their English counterparts through literal translation. For example, 纸老虎 (paper tiger), 一国两制 (one country, two systems ), and so on.
Free translation is an alternative approach which is used mainly to convey the meaning and spirit of the original without trying to reproduce its sentence patterns or figures of speech. This approach is most frequently adopted when it is really impossible for the translator to do literal translation. For example:
·Adam"s apple 喉结
·at sixes and sevens 乱七八糟
·It rains cats and dogs. 大雨滂沱
·Don"t cross the bridge till you get to it. 不必担心过早。(不必自寻烦恼)
·Do you see any green in my eye? 你以为我是幼稚可欺的吗?
The above illustrations can not be translated literally，otherwise，the Chinese rendition would make nonsense at all，let alone the original meaning.
Literal translation and free translation, however, are relative concepts. In other words, there is no absolute “literal”，nor entirely "free" version in the practice of translation, and overemphasizing either of them would result in ridiculous consequences. Let"s scrutinize the following two practical cases.
Original English 1
I love tiger cat, … British movies on public television，fluffy blouses, the nuclear family, (Helen Snow，My China Years)
Chinese Version A:
我爱虎猫, …… (爱)电视上放映的英国影片，有绒毛的短衫，核心家庭，……
Chinese Version B:
我喜欢豹猫, …… 喜欢公共电视台播放的英国电影，喜欢蓬松、柔软的棉毛衫，喜欢一夫一妻制的家庭，……
Comment:
Apparently, these two Chinese versions are far from being perfect. Other things aside, the rendering of the phrase nuclear family poses a serious problem of representation. Version A renders "the nuclear family" as "核心家庭" by means of literal translation. However, this version is too stiff, therefore it fails to convey the original meaning to the Chinese reader—for most Chinese, they have hardly any idea what "核心家庭" really means. Version B adopts the approach of free translation and puts it into "一夫一妻制"；evidently it goes too far and distorts the author"s original intention, and in doing so, the translator abuses the practice of free translation. In fact, the nuclear family has nothing to do with either of the versions. A close examination of its definition in an English-English dictionary sheds light on this phrase: nuclear family, a family group that consists only of father, mother and children. Therefore, the proper rendering of the phrase should be words to this effect: a cozy small family, namely, the Chinese equivalent "小家庭".
Original English 2 :
Mao Tse-tung was well bred, but inside he was made of steel, of hard resistance, of tough tissue—the kind of tissue the Boxers thought they had by magic, and bared their solar plexuses to foreign bullets.(ibid. )
Chinese Version A:
毛泽东有很好的教养，内部是钢，有坚强的抗力，是坚韧的材料制成的。这是义和团设想的由于神力具有的，可以把腹部袒胸给外国人的子弹的那种材料。
Chinese Version B:
毛泽东教养有素，精神支柱铁铸钢打，不怕高压，是由坚韧的组织构成的。这
种组织，就是义和拳认为他们通过魔法得到的那种组织袒胸露体，刀枪不入。
Comment:
The word "tissue" can hardly be rendered into Chinese either in literal translation or free translation，nor could the metaphor "inside he was made of steel" be properly rendered without grasping the essence of the whole sentence. However，since there is no corresponding expressions in Chinese, the translators tackle them according to their own understanding. Inversion A，"tissue" is freely rendered as "材料" (material)，while version B literally as"组织"(organic tissue)—both fail to convey the original meaning and attitude of the writer. By adopting translation skills such as amplification, omission，conversion and restructuring，we may translate the original English sentence as follows:
Revised Version:
毛泽东外表温文尔雅，但内心深处却钢铸铁打，既坚韧，又抗压—在他的身上可以看到当年义和团自信所具有的那种神力，面对洋枪洋炮也敢袒胸露怀。
From the above analysis, we come to the conclusion that there is no obvious distinction between literal translation and free translation, nor is it necessary to distinguish one from the other. The key point for a translator to grasp is to comprehend the original thoroughly, and then put it into idiomatic Chinese. In the process of translation, specific approaches such as literal or free translation may be of some help, but we should avoid the two extremes. In the application of literal translation, we should endeavor to rid ourselves of stiff patterns and rigid adherence to translation rules, trying to be flexible; while in the practice of free translation, we should be cautious of subjectivity, avoiding groundless affirmation or arbitrary fabrication. Whatever the circumstances, we may alternate or combine these two approaches when it is necessary.
7. Omission ？
Omission is a technique opposite to amplification. True, a translator has no right to subtract any meaning from the original work. But it does not follow that he should refrain from omitting any words at all in translation. In fact, one of the marked differences in syntax between English and Chinese is the disparity in wording. What is regarded as a natural or indispensable element in one language may be regarded as superfluous or even "a stumbling block" in the other. Take the following English sentence and its Chinese version for example:
Original English: The time-keeping devices of electronic watches are much more accurate than those of mechanical ones.
Chinese Version: 电子表比机械表准确得多。
A comparison between the Chinese version with the English original shows that many of the "redundant" English words have been omitted in the Chinese translation, otherwise, the Chinese sentence would sound wordy and unnatural. Therefore, a manipulation of the technique "omission" is always called for in English-Chinese translation. On the other hand, some Chinese sentences, when translated into English, also need to be rid of redundant wording so as to conform to idiomatic English expressions.
8. Conversion ？
Conversion, one of the commonly adopted translation techniques, means the change of parts of speech in translation. Owing to the syntactical differences between English and Chinese, it is usually impossible for a translator to keep to the original part of speech in the process of translation. For example:
Original English: This watch never varies more than a second in a month.
Chinese Version: 这块表一个月的误差从不超过一秒钟。
The English verb "varied" can hardly be rendered into Chinese by the same part of speech without spoiling the original meaning. As a matter of fact, a word belonging to a certain part of speech in one language sometimes has to be converted into a different part of speech, so as to bring forth a readable and coherent sentence.
9. Restructuring
Restructuring, as one of the translation techniques, means the necessary or inevitable change of word order in a sentence according to the usage of the language to be translated into. It is also called rearrangement or inversion.
10. Hypotactic vs. Paratactic (形合与意合)
Hypotaxis (形合法) is the dependent or subordinate construction or relationship of clauses with connectives, for example, I shall despair if you don"t come. English sentence building is featured by hypotaxis.
Parataxis(意合法)is the arranging of clauses one after the other without connectives
Showing the relation between them, for example, The rain fell; the river flooded; the house washed away. Chinese sentence building is featured by parataxis.
11. Foreignizing Translation and Domesticating Translation
(1). Foreignizing Translation
Foreignizing translation lays great emphasis on retaining the cultural flavors of the source language and enables the reader to have an alien reading experience, thus developing the reader"s awareness of cultural differences. To promote cultural exchange and mutual understanding between peoples of different languages and cultures, foreignizing translation is a far better choice than domesticating translation. In this way we can better understand the source-language culture and enrich Chinese modes of expression. The weakness of foreignization is that the culture-specific expressions thus translated may not be familiar to our readers or smooth enough for us to read with ease. In this case, a semantic translation or an explanatory note may be added. However, what is unfamiliar at present may gradually become familiar as more and more intercultural communications take place, or as people read more and more such translated expressions. Here we are reminded of a much quoted saying by
Lu Xun:
翻译必须有异国情调，就是所谓洋气。其实世界上也不会有完全归化的译文，倘有，就是貌合神离，从严辨别起来，它算不得翻译。凡是翻译，必须兼顾着两面，一当然力求其易解，一则保存着原作的丰姿，但这保存，却又常常和易懂相矛盾：看不惯了。不过它原是洋鬼子，当然谁也看不惯，为比较的顺眼起见，只能改换它的衣裳，却不该削低它的鼻子，剜掉它的眼睛。（《鲁迅全集》第6卷，348页）
and also a quotation from Mao Zedong:
要从外国语言中吸收我们所需要的成分。我们不是硬搬或滥用外国语言，是要吸收外国语言中的好东西，于我们适用的东西。因为中国原有语汇不够用，现在我们的语汇中就有很多是从外国吸收来的。例如今天开的干部大会，这“干部”两个字，就是从外国学来的。我们还要多多吸收外国的新鲜东西，不但要吸收他们的进步道理，而且要吸收他们的新鲜用语。（《反对党八股》）
It should be noted that skilful foreignizing translation, which may involve the techniques of necessary addition or omission, does not mean word-for-word or mechanical translation which disregards the original implication, the constraints of Chinese usage (linguistic and cultural), and the acceptability of our readers.
Examples:
1). arm to the teeth
武装到牙齿 (cf. 全副武装)
2). crocodile tears
鳄鱼的眼泪 (cf. 猫哭老鼠假慈悲)
3). Beauty lies in the lover"s eyes.
情人眼里出美人 (cf. 情人眼里出西施)
4). In the country of the blind, the one-eyed man is King.
盲人国里，独眼人称王 (cf. 蜀中无大将，廖化作先锋)
5). as gay (cheerful) as a lark
像云雀那样快活(cf.兴高采烈)
e.g. Ha, ha! We should be as gay as larks, Mr. Richard — why not? (C. Dickens: The Old Curiosity Shop)
6)．Sour grapes
酸葡萄(cf.把得不到的东西说成是不好的)
e.g. But because we cannot satisfy the desires of our hearts - why should we cry "sour grapes" at them? (H. Wells: Christina Alberta"s Father)
7). Pandora"s box
潘多拉的盒子 (cf. 灾难和罪恶的来源)
8). Judas kiss
犹大之吻 (cf.虚伪的好意)
9). teach a pig to play on a flute
教猪吹笛 (cf. 对牛弹琴)
10). flog a dead horse 鞭打死马 (cf.做无用功；白费口舌)
11). a dark horse 黑马 (cf. 出人意料的获胜者)
12). as easy as ABC 像ABC 字母一样简单 (cf. 非常容易)
13). ivory tower 象牙塔 (cf. 人们避免现实生活中烦恼的小天地)
14). Beauty is but skin-deep.
(谚语) 美貌只是一层皮(cf. 不可以貌取人)
15). Can the leopard change his spots?
(谚语)美洲豹岂能改变身上的花纹 (cf. 本性难移)
16). Trojan horse
(谚语) 特洛伊木马 (cf. 诡计；隐患；从内部进行颠覆破坏的人)
17). Never offer to teach fish to swim.
(谚语) 不要教鱼游泳 (cf. 不要班门弄斧)
18). look for a needle in a haystack
在草堆里找针 (cf. 海底捞针)
19). a stick-and-carrot policy
大棒加胡萝卜政策(cf.软硬兼施；恩威并用)
20). domino effect
多米诺骨牌效应 (cf.连锁反应)
21). John is her office Romeo.
约翰是她办公室里的罗迷欧(cf. 办公室里的男情人)
22). sandwich man
三明治式广告宣传员 (cf. 身前身后挂着标语牌的广告宣传员)
In foreignizing translation, a paraphrase or an explanation, if necessary, may be added to the unfamiliar expression or a footnote may be placed at the end of the translation, so as to make the English culture-loaded expression comprehensible to our readers:
e.g. It was another one of those Catch-22 situations, you"re damned if you do and you"re damned if you don"t.
这真是又一个如同军规第二十二条的尴尬局面：做也倒霉，不做也倒霉，令人左右为难。
注:：Catch-22 situation 源自美国小说家 Joseph Heller 于1961 年出版的小说《 第二十二条军规》（Catch-22)。该条军规规定：飞行员如果觉得自己神经不正常，可以获准不执行飞行任务，但必须提出申请并得到批准。但同时该军规又规定：如果飞行员因此提出申请，则充分证明该飞行员能意识到面临着无法克服的困难，头脑清醒，神经正常，因此不得豁免飞行任务。这是一条自相矛盾、无法执行的规定。
(2). Domesticating Translation
Domesticating translation minimizes the foreignness of the source-language text by changing heterogeneous elements into what is familiar to the target-language reader. This method of "substitution" means replacing the English culture-loaded expression by its Chinese equivalent, which may be similar in form and same in meaning (形似意同) or different in form but same in meaning (形异意同), to minimize the strangeness of the English expression by adopting a fluent, natural-sounding Chinese style for our readers" preferences. Domestication is usually employed when the translator believes that the original cultural flavor is widely different from Chinese culture and therefore too difficult for our readers to understand.
Both at present and in history, the domesticating strategy seems to have been dominant in China, for reviewers and publishers tend to lay great emphasis on readability of the translated text, which coincides with the taste of the general reader. The weakness of domestication is that the original cultural flavors are not communicated to our readers and the translation becomes a "regrettable art".
It should be emphasized that many English and Chinese expressions may seem similar in form, but they are actually different in meaning or in shades of implication. Translators should guard against these "false friends" and the resulting mistakes (see the "CAUTION" below).
Examples:
1). Give him an inch and he will take a mile.
2). like a cat on hot bricks
3). spring (shoot) up like mushrooms
4). The spirit is willing but the flesh is weak.
5). have one foot in the grave
6). carry coals to Newcastle
7). lion in the way (来自《圣经》) 拦路虎
8). Seeing is believing.
9). What"s done is done. (Shakespeare)
10). When Greek meets Greek then comes the tug of war. (谚语) 两雄相遇，其斗必烈。
12. Semantic Translation
Semantic translation means reproducing the precise contextual meaning of the English culture-loaded expression within the syntactic and semantic constraints of the Chinese language. Wemay employ the method of concretization" (具体法) or "abstraction" (抽象法) to paraphrase the expression. Semantic translation is employed often after the failure of "foreignizing translation" or "domesticating translation". In many cases we find it difficult to translate them unless we refer to contexts or consult dictionaries.
Examples:
1). apple of discord
(来自希腊神话) 不和的种子；争吵的根源
2). escape by (with) the skin of one"s teeth
(来自《圣经》) 死里逃生；幸免于难
3). hole-and-corner
(来自《圣经》) 偷偷摸摸；鬼鬼祟祟
4). as poor as Job
(来自《圣经》) 一贫如洗（穷得象约伯一样）
5). By George!
天啊！好家伙！糟糕！(used as an exclamation of surprise or approval.)
e.g. It couldn"t be, by George, that she was deceiving him. (Th. Dreiser: Sister Carrie)
6). Mickey Mouse (= small and unimportant; not to be taken seriously, LDCE 1998: 952)
e.g. ·A "Mickey Mouse course" meansa snap course. (American Speech)
· He calls himself the managing director but his company is just a Mickey Mouse operation that he runs from his own home. (LDCE 1998: 952)
7). in for a penny, in for a pound
(= if something has been started it should be finished, whatever the cost may be, LDCE 1998: 1108)
e.g. Now gentlemen, I am not a man who does things by halves, being in for a penny, I am ready, as the saying is, in for a pound. (The Curiosity Shop)
8). bite off more than one can chew
(= attempt more than one can deal with or succeed in finishing, LDCE 1998: 130)
e.g. I told him he would be biting off more than he could chew if he tried to rebuild the house himself, (ibid)
9). be in good company
(= be able to take comfort from the fact that many other [skilled or clever] people are the same as yourself, esp. in not being able to do something, Longman Dictionary of English Idioms, 1979)
e.g. —"Why are we going to France? I can"t speak a word of French."
—"Don"t worry, you"re in good company— neither can I!" (LDCE 1998: 294)
10). a square peg in a round hole
(= someone who is not suited to the job they hold, the group they belong to, LDCE 1998: 1489)
e.g. Horace hated his work in the office as he had always worked out of doors; he was a square peg in a round hole.
Eugene Nida
Dynamic Equivalence and Formal Equivalence
Eugene A. Nida (1914-- ) is a distinguished American translation theorist as well as a linguist. His translation theory has exerted a great influence on translation studies in Western countries. His work on translation set off the study of modern translation as an academic field, and he is regarded as “the patriarch of translation study and a founder of the discipline” （Snell-Hornby 1988:1; Baker 1998:277）
Nida’s theory of dynamic equivalence is his major contribution to translation studies. The concept is first mentioned in his article “Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating”(1959) （《从圣经翻译看翻译原则》） as he attempts to define translating. In his influential work Toward a Science of Translating (1964) （《翻译原则科学探索》）, he postulates dynamic equivalent translation as follows:
In such a translation (dynamic equivalent translation) one is not so concerned with matching the receptor-language message with the source-language message, but with the dynamic relationship, that the relationship between receptor and message should be substantially the same as that existed between the original receptors and the message (1964:159) However, he does not give a clear definition of dynamic equivalence untill 1969. In his 1969 textbook The Thoery and Practice of Translation（《翻译理论与实践》）, dynamic equivalence is defined “ in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the messages in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptores in the source language”(1969:24)
The expression “dynamic equivalence” is superseded by “functional equivalencev” in his work From One Language to Another (1986, with De Waard)（《从一种语言到另一种语言》）. However, there is essentially not much difference between the two concepts. The substitution of “functional equivalence” is just to stress the concept of function and to avoid misunderstandings of the term “dynamic”, which is mistaken by some persons for something in the sense of impact ( Nida 1993:124). In Language, Culture and Translating(1993)（《语言与文化：翻译中的语境》, “functional equivalence” is further divided into categories on two levels: the minimal level and the maximal level. The minimal level of “functional equivalence” is defined as “The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it”. The maximal level is stated as “The readers of a translated text should be able to understand and aprreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did” (Nida 1993:118; 1995:224). The two definitions of equivalence reveal that the minimal level is realistic, whereas the maximal level is ieal. For Nida, good translations always lie somewhere between the two levels (Nida 19954:224). It can be noted that “functional equivalence” is a flexible concept with different degrees of adequacy.
Dynamic Equivalence
A term introduced by Nida(1964) in the context of Bible translation to describe one of two basic orientations found in the process of translation (see also Formal Equivalence). Dynamic equivalence is the quality which characterizes a translation in which “the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors”(Nida & Taber 1969/1982:200, emphasis removed). In other words, a dynamically equivalent translation is one which has been produced in accordance with the threefold process of Analysis, Transfer and Restructuring (Nida & Taber 1969/1982:200); formulating such a translation will entail such procedures as substituting TL items which are more culturally appropriate for obscure ST items, making lingguistically implicit ST information explicit, and building in a certain amount of REDUNDANCY(1964:131) to aid comprehension. In a translation of this kind one is therefor not so concerned with “matching the receptor-language message with the source-laguage”; the aim is more to “relate the receptor to modes of behavior relevant within the context of his own culture” (Nida 1964:159). Possibly the best known example of a dynamically equivalent solution to a translation problem is seen in the decision to translate the Biblical phrase “Lamb of God” into and Eskimo language as “Seal of God”: the fact that lambs are unkown in polar regions has here led to the substitution of a culturally meaningful item which shares at least some of the important features of the SL expression (see Snell-Hornby 1988/1955:15). Nida and Taber argue that a “high degree” of equivalence of response is needed for the translation to achieve its purpose, although they point out that this response can never be identical with that elicited by the original(1969/1982:24). However, they also issue a warning about the limits within which the processes associated with producing dynamic equivalence remain valid: fore example, a comparison with the broadly simialr category of Linguistic Translaton reveals that only elements which are linguistically implict in TT-rather than any additional contextual information which might be necessary to a new audience—may legitimately be made explicit in TT. The notion of dynamic equivalence is of course especially relevant to Bible translation, given the particular need of Biblical translations not only to inform readers but also to present a relevant message to them and hopefully elicit a response(1969/1982:24). However, it can clearly also be applied to other genres, and indeed in many areas ( such as literary translation) it has arguably come to hold sway over other approaches (Nida 1964:160). See also Fuctional Equivalence. Further reading: Gut 1991; Nida 1964,1995: Nida & Taber 1969/1982.
？奈达（Nida）（1964）在《圣经》翻译中所采用的术语，用来描述翻译过程的两个基本趋向之一（另见Formal Equivalence[形式对等]）。动态对等指翻译性质而言，在这种翻译过程中，“原文信息转移到接受语言，译文接受者的反应与原文接受者的反应基本相同” (Nida & Taber 1969/1982:200,原文的着重号已取消)。 换言之，在动态对等的翻译中，译文的产生要经过三个步骤：分析[Analysis]、转移[Transfer]和重组[Restructuring] (Nida & Taber 1969/1982:200); 生成这么一篇译文需要采取如下程序：用在文化上更恰当的目标语成分替换隐晦难懂的源文本成分，使语言上内隐的源文本信息明晰化；以及使用一定的冗余[Redundant] 信息来帮助理解（1964：131）。因此，进行这类翻译，译者不必十分在意“接受语信息与源语信息的匹配“；译者的目的反而主要是“考虑接受者在自身文化情境中的行为模式”（Nida，1964：159）。用动态对等方法解决翻译问题的一个最为人知的例子，是把《圣经》用语“上帝的羔羊”译成某一爱斯基摩语中的“上帝的海豹”：在地球极地羔羊不为人知，因而在此将它替换成一个具有译语文化意义的事物，替换物至少拥有部分源语表达的重要特征（见Snell-Hornby 1988/1955:15）。奈达和泰伯（Taber）认为，要达到翻译目的，就需要获得在读者反应上的“高度”对等，但他们也指出，这种反应与原文引出的反应绝对不可能完全等同（1969/1982:24）。他们还指出，产生动态对等的相关过程使受到限制的，例如，把它与大致相同类别的语言翻译[Linguistic Translation]加以比较，发现源文本中只有语言上的内隐成分可以在目标文本中明说出来，而目标读者可能需要的任何附加语境信息则不可在目标文本中增加。毫无疑问，动态对等的概念对于《圣经》翻译特别有用，因为《圣经》翻译所需要的不仅是为读者提供信息，而且是要提供有用的信息，并希望引发某种反应（1969/1982:24）。但很显然，这一概念同时也能应用于其他文体。实际上，可以认为它已在很多领域（例如文学领域）表现得比其他途径更为优胜。
Formal Equivalence
Formal Equivalence ( or Formal Correspondence) Defined by Nida as one of “two different types of equivalence” (see also Dynamic Equivalence), which “focuses attention on the message itself, in both form and content”(1964:159). Formal equivalence is thus the “quality of a translaiton in which the features of the form of the source text have been mechanically reproduced in the receptor language”( Nida & Taber 1969/1982:201). Nida proposed his categorization in the context of Bible translation, and in many respects it offers a more useful distiction than the more traditional notions of free and literal translation ( Hatim & Mason 1990:7). The aim of a translator who is striving for formal equivalence is to allow ST to speak “in its own terms” rather than attempting to adjust it to the circumstances of the target culture; in practice this means, for example, using Formal rather than Functional Equivalents wherever possible, not joinning or spliting sentences, and preserving formal indicators such as punctuation marks and paragraphs breaks (Nida 1964:165). The frequent result of such strategies is of course that, because of differences in structure between SL and TL, a translation of this type “distorts the grammatical and stylistic patterns of the receptor lanugage, and hence distorts the message” ( Nida & Taber 1969/1982: 201). For this reason it is frequently nesessary to include explanatory notes to help the target reader ( Nida 1964:166). Like its converse, dynamic equivalence, formal equivalence represents a general orientation rather than and absolute technique, so that between the two opposite extremes there are any number of intervening grades, all of which reprent acceptable methods of translation (1964:160). However, a general tendency towards formal rather than dynamic euqivalence is characterized by, for example, a concern for accuracy (1964:1598) and a preference for retaining the original wording wherever possible. In spite of its apparent limitations, however, formal equivalence is sometimes the most appropriate strategy to follow: besides frequently being chosen for translating Biblical and other sacred texts, it is also useful for Back-translation and for when the translator or interpreter may for some reason being unwilling to accept responsibility for changing the wording of TT ( see Hatim & Mason 1990: 7). It should be noted that when Nida & Taber (1969/1982) discuss this concept they use the term formal correspondence to refer to it. Further reading: Nida 1964; Nida & Taber 1969/1982; Tymoczko 1985.
Formal Equivalence 形式对等（又名 Formal Correspondence[形式对应]）
奈达（Nida）将形式对等定义为“两种不同的对等类型”之一（另见Dynamic Equivalence[动态对等]）。这种对等“强调信息本身，既强调信息的形式也强调信息的内容”（1964：159）。 这样，形式对等指“源文本的形式特征在接受语中被机械复制的翻译特性”（Nida & Taber，1962/1982: 201），奈达是在《圣经》翻译的背景下提出这个分类的，它在许多方面比传统的自由译[Free Translation]、直译/字面翻译[Literal Translation] 概念更有用（Hatim & Mason，1990：7）。力求形式对等的译者允许源文本“用自己的话语”说话，而不想对它进行调整以适应目标文化；比如，在实践中，这意味着尽可能地采用形式对等语[Formal Equivalent]而不是功能对等语[Functional Equivalent], 既不合并也不拆分句子，保留原文的标点符号、段落划分之类的形式标志（Nida，1964：165）。当然，由于源语与目标语的结构差异，采用这类策略得到的译文往往“扭转了接受语的语法与文体模式进行曲解了（原文）信息”（Nida & Taber， 1969/1982: 201）。为此，必须经常增加解释性的注释以帮助目标语读者（理解）（Nida，1964：166）。 同与其相对应的动态对等一样，形式对等反映的是一个总体倾向而不是一种绝对的技巧，因此，在这对应的两极之间村子无数的中间等级，而所有这些中间等级都代表这可以接受的翻译方法（1964：160）。然而，追求对等而非动态对等的总体趋势具有如下特征，如强调译文准确（1964:159）,并倾向于尽可能地保留原来的措辞。尽管形式对等存在一些明显的局限，然而，有时候它仍是应该遵守的最合适的策略；除了常常用来翻译《圣经》和其他宗教经文外，它同时也有利于回译[Back-translation]， 而且在口笔译者可能出于某种原因不愿意承担改变目标文本措词的责任时，也是大有裨益的（见Hatin & Mason，1990：7）。应该指出，奈达和泰伯（1969/1982）在讨论这一概念时，他们使用“形式对应”这一术语来指称它。另见Gloss Translation[释词翻译]。详阅：Nida（1964）， Nida & Taber （1969/1982）; Tymoczko(1985).
Functional Equivalence
A term used to refer to the tpye of Equivalence reflected in a TT which seeks to adapt the function of the original to suit the specific context in and for which it was produced. According to Gutt, the function that a te**t is intended to fulfil is now probably the “most widely accepted frame of reference for translation equivalence”(1991:10). However, while the term is used by a number of writers, it is perhaps defined most systematically by House (1977). House’s aim is to develop a methodology for assessing translation quality, and so her concept of funcitonal equivalence is basically evaluative. She presents (1977:42) a detailed “multi-dimensional” analysis text function in which she distinguishes the three dimensions of linguistic usage relation to the language uers (geographical origin, social class and time), and five reflecting language use (medium, participation, social role relationship, social attitude and province, or general area of discourse). Using this framwork it is possible to build up a “text profile” for both ST and TT, and the House argues that a translated text “should not only match its source text in function, but employ equivalent situational-dimensional means to achieve that function”( 1977:49). This means that there should be a high level of matching between ST and TT in the dimensions which are particularly relevant to the text in question if TT is to be considered functionally equivalent to ST(1977:49). Within House’s wider model, functional equivalence is only attainable in cases of Covert Translation(1977:205). However, according to Gutt, problems remain in the case of texts which possess more than one function(1991:10); indeed, it would be extremely difficult to construct a model which could accommodate such text. It should be noted that the term functional equivalence is also used by de Waard & Nida(1986) to replace what Nida elsewhere refers to as Dynamic Equivalence; according to de Waard & Nida, the new term is less open to misinterpretation, and its use serves to “highlight the communicative functions of translating”(1986: 1986：ⅷ). Further reading: Gutt 1991; House 1977; de Waard & Nida 1986.
Functional Equivalence 功能对等 ？
用来指在目标语文本中反映出的对等类型的术语，该目标文本旨在使原文功能适应它得以生成以及为其而生成的特定语境。按照格特（Gut）的观点，现在，文本的功能或许是“翻译对等的最为普遍接受的参考框架”（1991：10）。然而，尽管这一术语为许多学者所采用，或许给它提供最系统的定义的使豪斯（House）（1977）。豪斯的目的是为评估翻译质量提供方法，因此，她的功能对等概念基本上评价性的。她（1944：42）提出了一种详细的。“多维度”文本功能分析，区分三种涉及语言使用者的语言用法维度（“地理来源”、“社会等级”与“时间”），还区分了五个反映语言使用的维度（“中介”、“参与”、“社会角色关系”、“社会态度”与“领域“，或一般话语范围）。运用这一框架，就有可能为源文本与目标文本建立一个“文本数据图”。豪斯指出，译本“不仅在功能上要切合源文本，而且应该采用对等的情景维度以取得这一功能”（1977：49）。这意味着，如果要想目标文本在功能上与源文本达到对等，那么，在相关文本关系特别密切的多个维度上，源文本与目标文本应当彼此高度对应（1977：49）。在豪斯所提范围更广的模式内，功能对等只有在隐型翻译[Covert Translation]的情况下才能实现（1977：204），但是，“因为必须要考虑到社会文化规范的差异”（1977：205），因此，即使在这里功能对等仍难以实现。然而，按照格特的观点，在文本具有多个功能的情况下，问题仍然存在（1991：10）；实际上，建立一个能够适应这类文本的模式是及其困难的。应该指出，功能对等这一术语也被得·瓦得（de Waard）与奈达（Nida）（1986）用来取代奈达在别处成为动态对等[Dynamic Equivalence]的概念；按照得·瓦得与奈达的观点，这一术语不那么容易被人误解，而且使用它可以“强调翻译的交际功能”（1986：ⅷ）。
Skopos theory目的论
20世纪70年代,功能派翻译理论兴起于德国。其发展经过了以下几个阶段。
第一阶段: 凯瑟琳娜·莱斯首次把功能范畴引入翻译批评,将语言功能,语篇类型和翻译策略相联系,发展了以源文与译文功能关系为基础的翻译批评模式,从而提出了功能派理论思想的雏形。莱斯认为理想的翻译应该是综合性交际翻译,即在概念性内容,语言形式和交际功能方面都与原文对等,但在实践中应该优先考虑的是译本的功能特征。
第二阶段: 汉斯·弗米尔(Vermeer)提出了目的论,将翻译研究从原文中心论的束缚中摆脱出来。该理论认为翻译是以原文为基础的有目的和有结果的行为,这一行为必须经过协商来完成;翻译必须遵循一系列法则,其中目的法则居于首位。也就是说,译文取决于翻译的目的。此外,翻译还须遵循“语内连贯法则”和“语际连贯法则”。前者指译文必须内部连贯,在译文接受者看来是可理解的,后者指译文与原文之间也应该有连贯性。这三条原则提出后,评判翻译的标准不再是“对等”,而是译本实现预期目标的充分性。弗米尔还提出了翻译委任的概念,即应该由译者来决定是否,何时,怎样完成翻译任务。也就是说,译者应该根据不同的翻译目的采用相应的翻译策略,而且有权根据翻译目的决定原文的哪些内容可以保留,哪些需要调整或修改。
费米尔认为，翻译中的最高法则应该是“目的法则”。也就是说，翻译的目的不同，翻译时所采取的策略、方法也不同。换言之，翻译的目的决定了翻译的策略和方法。对于中西翻译史上的归化、异化之争，乃至近二三十年译界广泛讨论的形式对等与动态对等，“目的论”都做出了很好的解释。翻译中到底是采取归化还是异化，都取决于翻译的目的。由于功能翻译理论就是以“目的原则”为最高准则，而任何翻译活动都是有目的的行为，片名翻译的最终目标和主要功能是帮助人们了解影片的主要内容，并激发观众的观看欲望。因此我们需要对功能翻译理论尤其是“目的论”流派做简单了解。
第三阶段: 贾斯塔·霍茨—曼塔里借鉴交际和行为理论,提出翻译行为理论,进一步发展了功能派翻译理论该理论将翻译视作受目的驱使的,以翻译结果为导向的人与人之间的相互作用。该理论和目的论有颇多共同之处,弗米尔后来也将二者融合。
第四阶段: 克里斯汀娜·诺德全面总结和完善功能派理论。克里斯汀娜·诺德首次用英语系统阐述了翻译中的文本分析所需考虑的内外因素,以及如何在原文功能的基础上制定切合翻译目的的翻译策略。克里斯汀娜·诺德对功能派各学说进行了梳理,并且提出译者应该遵循“功能加忠诚”的指导原则,从而完善了该理论。
《翻译》课程理论汇编（基本概念）
1.1 翻译的概念
一般地，我们将翻译定义为：将一种语言（口语或笔语形式）（译出语）转换或创造为另一种语言（译入语）。翻译是一种非常复杂的
人类高级语言活动，这种活动的整个过程是很难以图示、语言等其他方式阐释清楚的。不同领域、不同派别的学者对翻译有着不同的定义。
1.1.1 语言学家对翻译的定义
语言学家将翻译视为一种语言活动，同时认为，翻译理论属于语言学的一个部分，即研究译出语和译入语的转换关系。解释如下：
（1）Catford（1965：20）认为，翻译是译出语和译入语间的文本等效转换。
（2）Nida 和Taber（1969：12）认为，翻译是译出语和译入语间意义和形式上的最紧密联系转换。
（3）Newmark（1982/1988：5）认为，翻译理论源自于比较语言学，属于语义学的一部分，而所有语义学的研究课题都与翻译理论息
息相关。
1.1.2 文化角度对翻译的定义
从文化角度来看，翻译不仅仅是语言符号的转换，同时是文化的交流，尤其是“文化间交流”。通常我们把这一术语又改称为“文化
间合作”或“跨文化交际”等。
Shuttleworth 和Cowie（1997：35）认为，与其说翻译是两种语言之间的符号转换，不如说是两种语言所代表的两种文化间的转换。
译者在处理涉及语言文化方面的译务工作时，认为任何一种语言中都饱含着其文化中的相关元素（比如：语言中的问候语、固定搭配
等），任何文本都存在于特定的文化环境中，同时，由于各语言所代表的多元文化差异很大，语言间的转化和创造性生成模式千变万化。
Nida 认为，对于一个成功的翻译工作者而言，掌握两种文化比掌握两种语言更为重要，因为语言中的词汇只有在特定的语言文化环境
中才能具有正确的、合乎文化背景的义项。
王佐良先生指出（1989），翻译不仅涉及语言问题，也涉及文化问题。译者不仅要了解外国的文化，还要深入了解自己民族的文化。
不仅如此，还要不断的将两种文化加以比较，因为真正的对等应该是在各自文化中的含义、作用、范围、感情色彩、影响等等都是相当的。
翻译者必须是一个真正意义的文化人。人们会说：他必须掌握两种语言；确实如此，但是不了解语言当中的文化，谁也无法真正掌握语言。
1.1.3 文学角度对翻译的定义
持文学观点的翻译工作者认为，翻译是对语言的艺术性创造，或是一种善于创造的艺术。一些西方学者也认为，翻译是对“原文本的
艺术性改写”。
文学翻译的任务时要把原作中包含的一定社会生活的映像完好无损地从一种语言移注到另一种语言中，在翻译过程中追求语言的艺术
美，再现原作的艺术性。用矛盾的话说，是“使读者在读译文的时候能够像读原著一样得到启发、感动和美的感受。”
语言是塑造文学形象的工具，因而文学的形象性特征必然要在语言上表现出来。文学语言的特征，诸如形象、生动、鲜明、含蓄、凝
练、准确、风趣、幽默、辛辣、滑稽、悦耳、民族特点、地方色彩，还有行业习语、民间俚语、谚语等等，都是作家根据塑造形象的需要，
从现实生活中提炼创造出来的。文学作品的艺术形式与思想内容是辩证统一的，翻译要保存原作风格特点，因此要求译文生动形象、形神
毕肖、雅俗等同、简介精美、词情并茂（《译学词典》2004：291）
1.1.4 语义角度对翻译的定义
语义角度下的翻译着眼于两种语言间的意义对等，正如Nida（1986）指出的那样：翻译就是语义的翻译。
Newmark（1988：5）认为，翻译是在确保作者文本语义正确的前提下，对语言的转换和改写。
Newmark（1982：22）认为，语义翻译，即译者在译入语语义的限制下，精确的将译出语转化为译入语。
Shuttleworth 和Cowie（1997：151）认为，在语义翻译中，最为重要的是，译者是否将作者的语义精确地传达到译出语中，而不是译
者是否用他认为最合适的方式将作者的语义传达到译入语中。
1.1.5 功能角度对翻译的定义
功能主义者认为，翻译是带有特定目的的人类活动中的一种特殊形式，这种目的通常是社会环境中的语言服务项目，译者应满足客户、
读者的需求，同时应满足译文的功用和使用目的等。
Baker（2001：236）认为，翻译过程中不应受原文本、原文本对译出文本的影响或作者通过文本设置的特殊功能等的影响。决定翻译
过程的应该是读者、用户等对译出文本功用和目的的需求。
1.1.6 交际角度对翻译的定义
交际主义者认为，翻译是在特定的社会情境中的交际过程。
Newmark（1982：22）认为，交际性翻译，即译者尝试使译出语读者和译入语读者对同一篇文本产生同样的阅读效果。
Shuttleworth 和Cowie（1997：21）认为，交际性翻译指向译入语读者的需求，采用交际性翻译方式进行翻译的译者并不把原文本看做
是简单的语言单位，而是一种文本信息，同时，译者尽可能的保留原文本中的功能同时将其精确地反映给译入语读者们。
上面列举了翻译中的六种主要观点，希望能够帮助翻译初学者深入理解翻译的复杂本质。由于翻译受到多种因素影响，因此，我们认
为翻译是一种复杂的人类活动。
1.2 翻译的评价标准
翻译的评价标准具有两个方面的重要作用，其一作为翻译过程的指导原则，其二是作为衡量翻译作品的标准。一般来说，原文本有两个重要指标：一是内容，二是形式。下面我们将讨论的翻译评价标准将围绕着作品的形式和内容展开：
1.2.1 著名翻译家、翻译理论家提出的翻译评价标准
国内外的著名翻译家和翻译理论家就翻译评价标准提出了一系列富有见地的看法：
【中国翻译家】
（1）严复：严复（1853—1921）在翻译赫胥黎《天演论》（今译：《进化论》）中于前言处提出了翻译三原则，即：
1、信（faithfulness）：忠实准确
2、达（expressiveness）：通顺流畅
3、雅（elegance）：文字古雅
严复同时指出：
译事三难信达雅。求其信已大难矣。顾信矣不达。虽译犹不译也。则达尚焉。……
易曰修辞立诚。子曰辞达而已。又曰言之无文。行之不远。三者乃文章正轨。亦即为译事楷模。故信达于外。求其尔雅。此不仅期以行远已耳。实则精理微言。用汉以前字法句法。则为达易。用近世利俗文字，则求达难。往往抑义就词。毫厘千里。审择于斯二者之间。
夫固有所不得已也。岂钓奇哉。……
黄龙（1988：90）和劳陇（《翻译通讯》， 1983 年第10 期，运用读者最乐于接受的问题，使译文得以广泛流传，扩大影响）指出：严复的“翻译三原则”中，前两个标准，即对于原文的内容的“信”和“达”是能够作为普遍标准的，但是第三个标准“雅”引来了不少批
评之声。因为严复认为，只有回到汉代以前寻求词汇和句法，才能够称得上“雅”。同时，严复的“翻译三原则”饱受争议同样是因为，这三个标准自相矛盾，而严复却将这些标准放在一起。但，严复的“翻译三原则”仍然在中国流行，只不过对于这三个标准的解释已经和
先前不同了。当今的许多翻译工作者认为，严复的“雅”实际暗含着“保留原文的原汁原味”的意思。
（2）鲁迅：鲁迅提出了翻译的两个标准，即：信（faithfulness）和顺（smoothness）
鲁迅（《鲁迅全集》，第6 卷，348 页）指出：翻译必须有异国情调，就是所谓洋气，其实世界上也不会有完全归化的译文，倘有，就是貌合神离，从严辨别起来，它算不得翻译。凡是翻译，必须兼顾着两面，一当然力求于其易解，一则保存着原作的丰姿，但这保存，却
又常常和易懂相矛盾：看不惯了。不过它原是洋鬼子，当然谁也看不惯，为比较的顺眼起见，只能改换他的衣裳，却不应该削低他的鼻子，剜掉他的眼睛。
（3）林语堂：林语堂指出了翻译的三个标准，即：忠实（faithfulness）、通顺（ smoothness）和美（beautifulness）
林语堂（《论翻译》，林语堂名著全集，1995：306）指出：翻译的标准问题，大致包括三方面。我们可依三方面的次序讨论。第一是忠实标准，第二是通顺标准，第三是美的标准。这翻译的三层标准，与严氏的“译事三难”，大体上是正相比符的。……我们并须记得这
所包括的就是：第一，译者对原文方面的问题，第二，译者对中文方面的问题，第三，是翻译与艺术文的问题。以译者所负的责任言，第
一是译者对原著者的责任，第二是译者对中国读者的责任，第三是译者对艺术的责任，三样的责任全备，然后可以谓具有真正译家的资格。
（4）傅雷：傅雷先生指出了神似（resemblance in spirit）的思想
傅雷（《高老头》重译本，1951）指出：以效果而论，（文学）翻译应当像临画一样，所求的不在神似而在形似。
（5）钱钟书：钱钟书提出了化境（reaching the acme of perfection）的思想
钱钟书（《林纾的翻译》，1964）指出：文学翻译的最高境界是“化”，把作品从一国文字转变为另一国文字，既能不因语文习惯的差异而露出生硬牵强的痕迹，又能完全保存原有的风味，那就算得入于“化境”。十七世纪有人赞美这种造诣的翻译，比为原作的“投胎转
世（the transmigration of soul），躯壳换了一个，而精神姿致依然故我。换句话说，译本对原作应该忠实得以至于读起来不像译本，因为作品在原文里绝不会读起来像经过翻译似的。
（6）刘重德：刘重德提出了翻译的信、达、切（faithfulness、expressiveness and closeness）
刘重德（《浑金璞玉集》，1994：9）指出：信于内容（ to be faithful to the content of the original）；达如其分（ to be as expressive as the original）；
切合风格（to be as close to the original style as possible）
（7）许渊冲：许渊冲（《翻译的艺术》， 1984：26）提出了翻译的三重标准，如下表所示：
【外国翻译家】
（1）泰特勒（Alexander Fraser Tytler）提出了翻译的“三原则”：
英国著名翻译理论家，亚历山大·弗拉色·泰特勒，于1790 年在他的《翻译原则探讨》（Essay on the Principles of Translation）中提出
了如下的三个标准：
1、译作应该完全传达原作的思想（The translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work）
2、译作的风格与笔调应当与原作保持一致（The style and manner of writing in the translation should be of the same character with that of the
original）
3、译作应当和原文的一样流畅（The translation should have all the ease of the original composition）
泰特勒随后指出，上述“三原则”是按照其重要性排位的，当上述三者不能兼得时，应采取第一原则或第二原则而忽视第三原则。
（2）奈达（Eugene A. Nada）提出了翻译的功能对等（Functional Equivalence）
美国著名的翻译理论家奈达在其《语言和文化：翻译语境》（2001：87）一书中提出了“功能对等”概念：
1、最低限度而又切合实际的功能对等定义：译文读者对译文的理解应当能够达到能够想象出原文读者是怎样理解和领会原文的程度。
（A minimal, realistic definition of functional equivalence: The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it.）
2、最高限度合乎想象的功能对等定义：译文读者应当能够基本上按照原文读者理解和领会原文的方式来理解和领会译文。（A maximal, idealistic definition of functional equivalence: The readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same
manner as the original readers did.）
（3）纽马克（Peter Newmark）提出了“交际翻译与语义翻译”（Communicative and Semantic Translation）？
英国著名翻译理论家纽马克在其《翻译入门》（Approaches to Translation）（ 1982/1988:39）中提出了“交际翻译与语义翻译”理论，即：
1、交际翻译力图对译作读者产生尽可能接近原作读者所获得的效果。（Communicative translation on the readers of the original.）
2、语义翻译力图在译作语言的语义结构和句法结构允许的情况下，译出原作在上下文中的准确意义。（Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structure of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original.）
标准低标准中标准高标准
内容忠实（信） 明确准确精确
（三似） 意似形似神似
（三化） 浅化等化深化
形式通顺（达） 易懂通顺扬长（雅或传神）
1.4 翻译策略
1.4.1 直译（literal translation）和意译（free translation）
直译，也叫逐字翻译（word-for-word translation）， Baker（2001：125）认为，直译就是将译出语文本切割为单个词，并与译入语文本中的词语进行一一对应。而实际上，这种做法在大多数情况下是行不通的。例如，一个只有在译出语文化中才使用的孤立词无法和不具备
译出语文化的译入语中的词进行对应，即使能对应的上，译文通常不具有可读性。一般来说，所谓“直译”都需要在两种语言的文化差异上做一些必要的让步。一般的操作方法是，将译出语和译入语在孤立词的使用上尽可能保持一致，在词一致的基础上再追求词序的一致性。
意译，也叫语义翻译（sense-for-sense translation）， Shuttleworth 和Cowie（1997：151）认为，意译就是要在超越译出语文本词汇等语言符号的基础上，尽可能的传达原文本中的精神。意译法主要通过生成语言上和使用习惯上都趋向于译入语的文本，以此适合译入语读者
的口味。
上个世纪八十年代，中国翻译界学者达成了广泛共识，认为直译应该作为首选，同时，当直译不能传达译出语文本劲精神、思想等时，应该酌情使用意译。大量的翻译实践已经证明，直译和意义并不是相互排斥，而是互为补充。
许渊冲先生（1984：5）指出，无论是直译还是意意译，都要符合原文“忠实、通顺”的标准。
（1）当译文的形式和原文的形式一致的时候，就无所谓意译和直译。
（2）当译文的形式和原文的形式不一致的时候，就有意译和直译的问题，而且直译可以有程度不同的直译，意译也有程度不同的意
译。
■直译法：把忠实于原文的内容放在第一位，把忠实于原文的形式放在第二位，把通顺的译文形式放在第三位。
（1）如果译文和原文相同的形式能表达和原文相同的内容，可以直译。
（2）如果原文的表达形式比译文精确、有力，可以直译，但要符合“忠实、通顺”的标准。要吸收新鲜语，就要直译。毛泽东（《反
对党八股》）指出：要从外国语言中吸收我们所需要的成分，而且要吸收他们的新鲜用语。
■意译法：把忠实于原文的内容放在第一位，把通顺的译文形式放在第二外，不拘泥于原文的形式。
（1）如果“忠实”和“通顺”发生矛盾，那么就应该忠实于原文的内容放在第一位，把通顺的译文形式放在第二外，把忠实于原文
的形式放在第三位。
（2）如果译文和原文相同的形式不能表达和原文相同的内容，一般意义。
（3）如果译文的表达形式比原文精确、有力，可以意译。
■硬译法：如果不忠实于原文的内容，只忠实于原文的形式，那就不是直译，而是硬译。
■滥译法：如果不忠实于原文的内容，只追求通顺的译文形式，那也不是意译，而是滥译。
1.4.2 异化翻译（foreignizing translation）和归化翻译（domesticating translation）
上面所提到的直译和意义都是关注语言方面的转换问题，下面要讲到的异化和归化翻译，将更多的关注文化、语言和审美方面的需求。
异化翻译：Venuti（1995：20）认为，异化翻译即有意割裂译出语和译入语文本之间的联系，用译出语中的相关外来概念进行翻译和
阐述，异化翻译是偏离民族主义路线的，对译入语文化价值施加压力，使其关注外语文本的语言和文化差异，把读者带入外国情景，体验
外国人的阅读感受。
换言之，异化翻译要求译者向原文作者靠拢，采取原文作者使用的表达方式传达原文的内容。
归化翻译：Venuti（1995：20）认为，归化译法尽可能缩小译出语文化和译入语文化之间的差异，构建透明、流动自由的风格，使译入语读者能够很快适应译文内容并产生基于本民族文化的共鸣。归化译法采取民族中心主义的态度，是外语文本符合译入语的文化价值观，
把原作者带入译入语文化。
换言之，归化译法要求译者向译文读者靠拢，采取译文读者习惯的表达方式。
需要指明的是，翻译中归化和异化的问题不同于直译和意译的问题，中国翻译界的学者呈现“一边倒”状况，认为：异化和归化都有其存在的合理性和必要性，不应该顾此失彼。郭建中（2000：287）也指出：
翻译中的“归化”和“异化”不仅是不矛盾的，而且是互为补充的。文化遗址需要多种方法和模式。应用翻译的目的论理论（skopos theory），对翻译中的设计的各种因素做综合分析，译者既可以采取“归化”的原则和方法，也可以采用“异化”的原则和方法。至于在译文中必须保留那些源语文化，怎样保留，哪些源语文化的因素又必须做出调整以适应目的语文化，都可以在对作者意图、翻译目的、文本类型和读者对象等因素分析的基础上做出选择。对译者来说，重要的是在翻译过程中要有深刻的文化意识，即意识到两种文化的异同。
必须指出两点：一是不论在当代或在历史上，以目的语文化为归宿的原则似乎是占了上风。这是因为评论家和出版商往往更看重译作的可读性，一般的读者也喜欢读通顺易懂的译文，而且，这一倾向也正好与翻译研究发展的趋向相一致。二是，随着两种文化接触的日益
频繁，以源语文化为归宿的原则将越来越有可能广泛地被应用，最终很可能会占上风，但不管怎样发展，“归化”和“异化”将永远同时并存，缺一就不能称之为翻译。
第三篇: 入党谈话理论知识
内部资料严禁流通
基础篇之 手持式单指单张点钞法
手持式单指单张点钞法，是当今运用最广泛的点钞方法之一。无论钞票新旧大小都适用，而且在点钞过程中容易识别钞票的真伪，及时挑出不易流通的人民币。
点钞指法
腰条扎在钞票边上，距离钞票边2-3毫米为最佳。左手中指与无名指分开，呈弯曲状，手心向上，夹住钞票扎把一端，将钞票前面平放到桌面上，食指自然伸直，大拇指顺势将钞票推成斜坡状。
握住钞票的左手应放在桌面上，清点的票面应与桌面呈90度角，有利于下钞。钞票与身体的距离应在10CM-15CM。右手食指轻托住练功券右上角，中指尽量伸直，大拇指向下捻钞，无名指协助弹下钞票。
在比赛中，清点时查数不要从1数到100，以10为一个查数单位，在心里默念。
例如：12345678910,22345678910,32345678910
点到95张停下，后面剩下的钞票看数。
注意事项
1.单指单张点钞中，两臂悬起或两臂肘关节支在桌面上进行点钞是不正确的动作。这样会影响点钞的速度及准确性。
2.持钞的手要夹紧钞票，否则钞票容易散乱，影响点钞速度。
3.大拇指应压在钞票的中部，压得靠上或靠下会影响点钞的速度。
4.用于向下捻钞的大拇指，捻钞时幅度不要过大或过小，过大会影响下钞的频率，过小会容易造成连张。
基础篇之 扇面点钞法
在扇面点钞中，有两种常用的正确拆把方法。第一种，用右手大拇指与食指将腰条直接拆开，适合初学者，比较稳健，腰条不易丢失。第二种，用右手大拇指向下将腰条直接抠开。适合较熟练者，节省时间，多用于比赛中。
开扇
开扇时，右手包住握住钞票的左手，以左手大拇指为轴，其余手指在钞票后方，逆时针方向将钞票用右手食指与大拇指将推成扇面状。
在清点时，除大拇指，食指外，其余手指要托住钞票，防止钞票向后弯曲。大拇指压准的钞票由中指与食指夹住，清点时两手要配合，同时向中部移动。
注意事项
开扇时注意两手的虎口，尽量离开扇面两侧，反之容易造成扇面两侧堆张，不易清点，影响准确性。
1.大拇指压下的钞票，用食指与另外三个手指夹住，这样能起到固定钞票的作用；反之，容易使钞票向后弯曲，手法不稳，不利于合扇的整齐。
2.清点完成后，单手将扇面立面向下平放在桌面上，钞票自然能回到可以扎把的状态，这样可以节省时间。用双手合扇是不正确的，影响点钞速度。
基础篇之 机器点钞法
在日常工作中，用机器清点现金时，右手持钞，左手拆把，右手借助于桌面使钞票形成斜坡状，这样有利于下钞的速度及准确性。用机器清点现金时，关键在于扎把的速度和眼力，清点时眼睛要始终看着钞票，有利于看到夹版和飞出的钞票。
收取大量现金时，主要运用点钞机，在放钞票时，钞票要形成一定角度的斜坡状，有利于点钞的准确性及下钞的速度。
清点完成后，两手轻握钞票两端，将钞票提起三至四厘米，反复落到桌面上，至立面墩齐，然后左右手配合将钞票形成斜坡状，用两手手掌与手指连接处握住钞票，并将钞票形成一定弧度，反复两次，墩齐钞票。
墩齐后，应将钞票扎紧。左手大拇指和中指捏住钞票，食指在钞票立面上方，右手持腰条将三分之一部位搭在钞票立面中部，用左手食指压住腰条，腰条绕过钞票右手拇指与食指捏住腰条，左手大拇指与中指捏住钞票两侧立面腰条上，两手配合使钞票形成一定弧度，将腰条向上折叠后，再折入腰条与钞票的空隙中，用右手拇指与食指捏紧。
竞赛篇
比赛规则
单指单张及扇面点钞比赛的基本规则
1.比赛时间10分钟。
2.比赛需完成拆把、点数、扎把、盖章四道工序。要求点准、墩齐、扎紧、盖章清晰。每把计一百张，其中有差错的，多张用“+”几，少张用“—”几，在原纸腰上注明。
3.原纸腰丢失、错留纸腰或划错符号，取消该把成绩。
4.每发现一个差错，加计成绩50张；发现差错未在原纸腰上记载，而在新纸腰上记载的，不予以加计成绩。
5.凡点错或未发现差错的，取消该项成绩。
机器点钞的规则
1.比赛时间5分钟。
2.发现夹版，在原纸腰上记对号。
3.其余规则同上。
比赛的出错标准
1.出错数量：0-5把
2.出错张数：1-5张
竞赛篇之 单指单张点钞
首先要放松自己，太紧张会影响速度。
比赛用具要齐全：书立，纸条架，海面壶，原子章，笔。
竞赛过程演示
注意拆把的时机，请注意动作的衔接和两手的配合，注意发现差错时不用拆把，直接在原上注明差错数量，放在一边以示区分。
在比赛监督通知距比赛结束还剩30秒时，要把已点完的练功券盖上名章，注意盖名章的动作。在剩下的时间里可以继续清点练功券。
在比赛监督宣布比赛结束时，清点完的练功券用纸条隔开。并在纸条上注明数量。
竞赛篇之 扇面点钞
竞赛过程演示
请注意动作的衔接两手的配合。注意发现差错时，将差错数量记在原纸条上，放入有差错的原练功券中，注意调整练功券离自己的距离。
在比赛监督通知距比赛结束还剩30秒时，要把已点完的练功券盖上名章，注意盖名章的动作。在剩下的时间里可以继续清点练功券。
在比赛监督宣布比赛结束时，清点完的练功券用纸条隔开。并在纸条上注明数量。
竞赛篇之 机器点钞
机器点钞法，关键在于放钞的手法。用右手把钞票搓成一定角度放入点钞机，眼睛盯住翻滚的钞票主要是看到夹版券。
发现夹版时，把夹版券拿到上面后才可以扎把，并在原条记对号，放入有差错钞票中，放在一边以示区分。
在比赛监督宣布比赛结束时，点钞机里面的钞票可以算作成绩，并进行扎把盖章。
法规篇之 五好钱捆
合规钱捆
点数准确、残币调净，平铺整齐、把捆扎紧，印章清楚
不合规钱捆
未挑剔残损人民币，钱捆未墩齐，腰条不齐，印章不清